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That helps us to reduce garage building costs and deliver a quality product which is highly functional. This was significantly greater than OM content in the cores with mussel feces and sea cucumbers SMSC-cores for the same period 7. The OM content in surface sediment of I and S-cores was 5. Below 0. Error bars represent the standard error about the mean in the positive direction only. Chlorophyll a chl a and pheopigment concentrations were greatest in the sediment surface top 0. Pheopigment concentrations in the top 0. There were no significant differences among treatments in either chl a or pheopigment concentrations below 0.

Total chloro-pigment concentrations in A. There was, however, no significant difference in total chloro-pigment between A. Error bars represent the standard error about the mean. There was a significant difference in bacterial abundance in the top 0. Bacterial abundance in surface interval was significantly greater in SMSC-cores 1. There was no significant difference between S and SM-cores, most likely due to the high variance C. The black arrow illustrates when the first biodeposits were added.

White areas signify light hours and grey areas dark hours. There was no significant difference between S and SM-cores.

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Diurnal patterns and differences among treatments differed considerably from those on Days 2—12 Figure 3. No significant difference in R was found between I and S-cores during either light or dark hours Table 1. The addition of biodeposits had a significant effect on sediment O 2 dynamics. No significant difference in R was detected between S and SM-cores during dark hours. Nonetheless, the mean R in SM-cores was considerably higher than in S-cores, and there was no overlap in the data. Thus, a significant difference may have been obscured by low replication.

Furthermore, there was no overlap in the data, suggesting that low replication may have again obscured any significant difference. The deposit-feeding sea cucumber Australostichopus mollis suppressed benthic microalgae and facilitated bacterial activity, thus causing a shift in the balance of benthic production and decomposition processes. The increased efflux of inorganic nitrogen from the sediments in the presence of the sea cucumber promoted algal productivity; however, grazing of the microphytes by the sea cucumbers had a net negative effect on primary producer biomass.

The activities of this species enhanced bacterial abundance, which facilitated mineralization processes and provides a mechanistic explanation for the observed reduction in sediment OM content. These changes in geochemistry exemplify the significant role sea cucumbers can play in ameliorating the effects of eutrophication and influencing nutrient cycling in coastal ecosystems.

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The deposit-feeding sea cucumbers increased bacterial abundance and OM remineralization rates in coastal sediments, thus providing a mechanism for enhanced OM decomposition in the presence of bioturbators. The addition of mussel biodeposits significantly increased OM content Figure 1 and pigment concentration Figure 2 in surface sediment, consistent with previous studies [30] , [31] , [32].

However, OM content was reduced and nutrient efflux significantly elevated in sediment with A. Bacterial counts in the sediment surface Figure 1 and diurnal patterns in O 2 exchange Table 2 demonstrate that A. The stimulatory effects of benthic infauna e. Here we demonstrate that surface deposit-feeding holothurians also stimulate bacteria through their reworking and mixing of sediment particles bioturbation [35].

In addition, A. Fresh feces of holothurians are enriched in organic matter indicated by pigment concentrations; Figure 2 and bacteria [36]. Moreover, the reduced diffusive distances between food sources within these feces, and its enhanced degradation state [37] , may facilitate bacterial proliferation [32].

We propose that by reworking and reconstituting sediment, A. Overall, sediment OM content was significantly reduced in the presence of A. Accordingly, the presence of the microbial decomposers and the reduced assimilation of remineralized nutrients by producers see below resulted in a net overall decrease in sediment OM content in the presence of A.

While previous studies have argued the potential of sea cucumbers to counter eutrophication directly through their own energy requirements [7] , [8] , our study demonstrates that sea cucumbers can also ameliorate the effects of eutrophication indirectly through facilitation of bacterial decomposers.

The possibility that A. The current study does not include meiofauna as this was not the focus of our study, and thus we cannot assess the role of meiofauna on bacteria. Regardless of the specific mechanism, our findings demonstrate that bacteria were stimulated in the presence of omnivorous deposit-feeding sea cucumbers and thus support the theory that bacterial facilitation may be important for the persistence of omnivory in some benthic communities [17]. The addition of biodeposits [32] and bioturbation [1] can affect sediment geochemistry and nutrient exchange between the sediment and overlying seawater.

Bioturbators can increase the efficiency of diffusive solute transport [40] due to interphase mixing [41] , which may have contributed to the elevated release of nutrients in SMSC-cores. However, as no significant difference was detected in porosity between SM and SMSC-cores, there is no immediate support for this idea. Rather, bacterial counts Figure 1 and oxygen data Table 2 demonstrate that bacteria proliferated in the presence of sea cucumbers and this promoted OM decomposition and affected benthic—pelagic exchange of nutrients. The influx of NO x tended to be lower when A.

The presence of A. Thus, the A. Clearly through direct producer—decomposer interactions, A. The range and complexity of bioturbator-sediment biogeochemical interactions documented in our study is consistent with that of previous authors [1] , [2] and reiterates that diminished bioturbator abundance is likely to have a considerable impact on sediment geochemistry and ecology in coastal ecosystems [6] , [2].

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The presence of deposit-feeding sea cucumbers directly influenced producer biomass through bioturbation and grazing, and indirectly influenced nutrient fluxes that affected microphytes Fig. However, these bioturbators also indirectly promoted efflux of nitrogen from the sediments by facilitation of bacterial decomposers that enhanced mineralization rates see above. Nutrient subsidies from biodeposits enhanced benthic algal biomass Figure 2 ; Fig.

S2 , but grazing by sea cucumbers resulted in a net reduction in MPB biomass at high densities of A. Moreover, in spite of elevated O 2 consumption in SM-cores Table 2 , there was no significant difference in the total net O 2 production in S and SM-cores—a clear indication of greater MPB biomass in sediment with biodeposits. Grazing by the deposit feeding sea cucumbers indicated by high pigment concentrations in A. By contrast, some studies have documented a net positive effect of deposit-feeding bioturbators e. Bioturbator density may also explain the disparity between our findings and that of some previous studies since bioturbator density can have a non-linear effect on microbial interactions [45].

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There was a net increase in the biomass of sea cucumbers during our experiment, indicating that the density used and the experimental conditions did not adversely affect the physical condition of A. Other studies, by contrast, have used lower densities of bioturbators. Alternatively, our findings may demonstrate the importance of productivity gradients in determining the strength of the effect of sea cucumber—microphyte interactions. Plant community interactions can become less positive, or even negative as the environments fertility increases [26] , [46].

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The ability of microphytes to control regeneration of nutrients following significant deposition of algal detritus has not been demonstrated to date. Our findings demonstrate that MPB were stimulated by the addition of mussel biodeposits, and this increased algal biomass in turn, influenced the benthic—pelagic exchange of nutrients see above. Given the importance of phytodetritus for coastal food webs and biogeochemical cycles [48] , the relationship between pelagic productivity, deposition, and benthic productivity is an important area for future research.

By facilitating bacterial abundance and suppressing microphytobenthos, deposit-feeding sea cucumbers shift the microbial balance in organically enriched marine sediments and redistribute dissolved nutrients from the sediments into the pelagic environment. The associated ecosystem-level effects—significant changes in nutrient cycling and sediment OM content, demonstrate that sea cucumbers play an important functional role in the ecology of coastal ecosystems and may be used to counter eutrophication effects of finfish or bivalve farms.

Cores were left to settle for five days and the experiment conducted over the following 14 days. The overlying seawater in each core was stirred with a motor-driven magnetic rod to ensure a homogeneous, oxygenated water column that did not resuspend the sediment. Fresh mussel feces and pseudo-feces feces hereafter were collected from farmed mussels Perna canaliculus. The flow-through system was temporarily turned off and 5.

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Nutrient fluxes were measured in all 16 cores before the experiment. Initial O 2 concentration microprofiles and sediment characteristics were determined on four cores I-cores. Four of the remaining 12 cores were randomly selected as control cores with sediment only S-cores , whilst the other eight cores were treated with mussel feces as described above.

Four of these cores only received mussel feces SM-cores and four also received cultured juvenile 3—6 cm sea cucumbers, Australostichopus mollis SMSC-cores. We used similar densities of sea cucumbers trialed under mussel farms [7] : between five and six A. Biomass of sea cucumbers was determined at the start and end of the experiment after starvation for 48 hours.

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