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Days of Ice: Antarctic Quiz. School Holidays Special. Taupo Winter Festival - Take 2! Position id: 7 Zone id: NZ Wiener Dog Derby Highwic Guided House Tour. Lockdown Laundry - Air Your Memories. Perfect Little Planet. Position id: 2 Zone id: And even if the study skull hypothesis conveniently removes the requirement for a re-write of history, surely the presence of one in the Ruamahanga River simply presents another enigma? Flotsam of an ancient shipwreck, maiden of Rongotute, anatomical yardstick or elaborate hoax?

In this inquiry much depended on two great scientific hinges: ethnicity and dating.

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How accurate were the techniques? What did the results signify and how cautious should we be in interpreting them? What other analytical tools could be brought to bear?

And how did all this sit in relation to our understanding of the past, and especially of that hazy, unstable history of distant first contact? How exactly did Dr Watt go about determining ethnicity in the case of the Ruamahanga skull? Robin Watt occupies a position that is unique in New Zealand science.

He has developed a reputation for bringing an impressive weight of knowledge and experience to bear on the emotive issues surrounding early settlement in New Zealand. Some time after the inquest findings had been made public I called on him at his Wellington office, in a commercial building near the foreshore of Lyall Bay, to find out.

In the small workroom, surrounded by anatomical charts and reference works on anthropometry and bone pathology, he told me of the difficulties presented by the skull. Bone loss and damage to the left side had deprived him of accurate measurements — what he termed diagnostic biometric data. Even more significant was the lack of a jawbone.

Polynesian mandibles were very distinctive, he said, with the gonion the point at which the mandible is attached to the skull being broad, and in some cases having a pronounced upward curve. Evidence of full adult dentition, the closure of cranial sutures and the start of suture closure in part of the right temporal area indicated an age of 40—45 years. The presence of a water line of gravel in the cranium was consistent with having been waterborne; for example, by being washed out of a burial ground.

Maori and Polynesian skulls tend to be well-defined, and when viewed from the rear, have a house shape not unlike a modified pentagon. In females this profile was commonly less pronounced. The crown of the Ruamahanga skull had an entirely different shape, and what could be seen of the face was reminiscent of European features. But, then, there was so little to go on. The reason for that, he explained, was the problem of range of variation—the extent of physiological differences within an ethnic group. Unfortunately, not only was the Ruamahanga skull damaged and incomplete, it was found in isolation.

There were no other bones that could help establish sex or cause of death or indeed shed any light on the deceased. In the absence of metrics, Watt had been forced back on his qualitative analysis, which is why his conclusion was hedged with probabilities.

One way of increasing forensic accuracy, he told me, was through chemical analysis, the best of which was DNA. Another was radiocarbon dating. In his inquest report Watt himself had recommended radiocarbon dating for the Ruamahanga skull to clarify whether it was recent or not, and therefore whether it was a police matter or simply of historic interest. At that stage, the possibility of the skull being of ancient origin seemed remote.

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And so the investigation entered a domain of science whose methods and results were more problematic even than the centuries old study of bone. Sitting on a hillside overlooking Gracefield in the Hutt Valley, the Rafter Radiocarbon Laboratory has built a worldwide reputation in the field of radiocarbon dating. Dr Nancy Beavan-Athfield worked on the Ruamahanga skull and talked me through the complexities of radiocarbon research.

As I soon learned, there was a great deal of talking to be done. The first point to grasp was that the numbers thrown up by the radiocarbon dating process represent the amount of radiocarbon remaining in a given sample translated into radiocarbon years—which are not the same thing as calendar years. Radiocarbon 14C was being produced in the atmosphere even as we spoke, said Athfield—it was a continuous, natural process—although the amount could vary from year to year due to the variation in cosmic radiation, which reacts with the 14N isotope to form 14C.

Trees set down this radiocarbon in their annual growth rings. The tree ring record of 14C stretching back hundreds of years creates the splendidly named floating tree ring chronology—a database of atmospheric 14C taken from ring sequences in trees with a known date of death—including ancient oak from Ireland and Tasmanian pines. When the Industrial Revolution kicked in, the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal and later fuel oil, pumped vast amounts of fossil carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which mixed with naturally produced 14C. Radiocarbon calibration becomes more complex, or perhaps more curious, by virtue of another modern phenomenon.

In the mids the industrialised West slapped down an unmistakable exclamation mark in the chronology—what amounted to a trig point in time. Athfield and her colleagues know this waypoint as bomb carbon. This was created when radiation pulses from atmospheric nuclear weapons tests—which were far more powerful than cosmic radiation—reacted with atmospheric nitrogen to form radiocarbon at levels hundreds of times greater than natural production. What is distinctive is that any plant, animal or human that has lived since the dawn of nuclear testing has a certain bomb carbon 14C signature. And it was bomb carbon, used forensically, that brought the Ruamahanga skull to Beavan-Athfield in the first place.

Radiocarbon dating is a process of reduction and measurement. First, a small amount of bone shavings approx. The resulting bone material is then reduced to a pure protein by gelatinisation in weak hydrochloric acid for 16 hours at deg C, and filtered. Chemically reducing bone to pure bone protein takes about five days. Reducing that protein to pure carbon adds another day. It does this with a large deflecting magnet that takes advantage of their mass or atomic weight differences.

The path taken by the heavier radioactive carbon around the magnet puts it on a perfect trajectory towards a particle detector, which counts the amount remaining in the sample being analysed. And because 14C comprises such an infinitesimally small percentage of the carbon sample as a whole—12 orders of magnitude less than the stable 12C isotope—counting individual atoms makes this the most sensitive and accurate form of radiocarbon analysis. More by Vaughan Yarwood. Unlimited access to every NZGeo story ever written and hundreds of hours of natural history documentaries on all your devices.

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